The Witnesses Who Cannot Be Dismissed
When scholars question Zoroastrian antiquity or influence, they often ignore the most inconvenient evidence:
Greek and Roman historians — writing centuries before the Sassanid compilation of the Avesta — documented Zoroastrian beliefs in detail.
These writers had no theological stake in Zoroastrianism. They were outsiders describing what they observed and learned. Their testimony proves:
- Zoroastrianism existed and was known to the ancient world
- Its core doctrines match later Zoroastrian texts
- It was already ancient when the Greeks encountered it
- Greek philosophers explicitly learned from the Magi
Here is every major ancient citation, compiled.
HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 BCE)
The Father of History
Herodotus traveled extensively through the Persian Empire and recorded what he learned.
Histories, Book 1.131-132
“The Persians, I discover, have the following customs. It is not their practice to erect statues, temples, and altars; indeed, they count those who do so as fools, because, I suppose, they do not believe the gods to be like humans, as the Greeks do. Their custom is to climb to the summits of the highest mountains and sacrifice to Zeus, which is the name they give to the whole vault of the sky. They also sacrifice to the sun, moon, earth, fire, water, and winds.”
“These are the only gods to whom they have ever sacrificed from the beginning… Later, they learned to sacrifice to the ‘Heavenly Aphrodite’… The Persians call her Mitra.”
Histories, Book 1.140
On funerary customs and the treatment of corpses — showing awareness of Zoroastrian purity laws.
What Herodotus Proves
- Persian monotheistic tendencies (sacrificing to “Zeus” = supreme sky god)
- No idol worship (consistent with Zoroastrianism)
- Reverence for fire, water, earth, sky
- Mention of Mitra (Mithra)
- Writing in the 5th century BCE — during Achaemenid period
XANTHUS OF LYDIA (5th Century BCE)
The First Greek Historian of Persia
Xanthus wrote a history of Lydia that included Persian material. His work survives only in fragments quoted by later writers.
Fragment (preserved by Diogenes Laertius)
“Xanthus the Lydian says Zoroaster lived six thousand years before Xerxes’ invasion of Greece.”
What Xanthus Proves
- Greeks dated Zoroaster to deep antiquity (6,000 years before Xerxes = ~6480 BCE by Greek reckoning)
- This was not Zoroastrian propaganda — it was Greek historical observation
- Even if exaggerated, it proves Zoroaster was considered extremely ancient
PLATO (c. 428-348 BCE)
Alcibiades I (disputed authorship, but ancient)
“At the age of fourteen the [Persian prince] is taken in charge by the royal pedagogues, as they are called… four persons, chosen as the best among the Persians of mature age: namely, the wisest, the most just, the most temperate, and the bravest. The first of these teaches him the worship of their gods according to Zoroaster, the son of Horomazes.”
What Plato Shows
- Zoroaster was known to Greeks as founder of Persian religion
- “Horomazes” = Ahura Mazda (Greek transliteration)
- Zoroastrian education was part of Persian royal training
- 4th century BCE knowledge of Zoroastrianism
ARISTOTLE (384-322 BCE)
Direct Fragments and Reports
Aristotle reportedly dated Zoroaster to 6,000 years before Plato’s death (according to Pliny).
On Philosophy of the Magi
Aristotle’s student Eudemus of Rhodes and the Peripatetic school preserved teachings about the Magi. Diogenes Laertius reports:
“According to Aristotle… the Magi are more ancient than the Egyptians.”
What Aristotle Proves
- Zoroaster’s extreme antiquity was accepted in Greek philosophical circles
- The Magi were considered among the most ancient teachers
- Greek philosophers took Persian wisdom seriously
THEOPOMPUS OF CHIOS (c. 380-315 BCE)
Philippica (preserved in fragments)
Theopompus wrote about Persian religion in detail:
“According to the Magi, for three thousand years alternately one god will dominate and the other be dominated, then they will war and fight, each destroying the works of the other. But at last Hades [Angra Mainyu] shall fail, and men shall be happy, neither needing food nor casting a shadow. And the god who has accomplished all this rests for a time — not long indeed for a god, but proportionate to a man’s sleeping.”
What Theopompus Proves
- Greek knowledge of Zoroastrian dualism (two cosmic powers)
- Knowledge of cosmic conflict structure
- Knowledge of final victory of good over evil
- Knowledge of world renovation (Frashokereti)
- Detailed eschatology documented in 4th century BCE
This is crucial — Theopompus describes Frashokereti centuries before the Sassanid Avesta.
PLUTARCH (c. 46-120 CE)
Isis and Osiris, 46-47
Plutarch provides the most detailed Greek account of Zoroastrian dualism:
“Some believe that there are two gods, as it were rival craftsmen, one the creator of good things, the other of bad. Others call the better one ‘god’ and the other ‘daemon’… Zoroaster the Magian, who lived, they say, five thousand years before the Trojan War, called the one Oromazes [Ahura Mazda] and the other Areimanius [Angra Mainyu].”
“Of these he said that the one was most like light among things perceived, the other darkness and ignorance… Between these is Mithras, whom the Persians call the Mediator.”
On the Final Victory
“But a fated time will come when Areimanius, who is bringing on pestilence and famine, must be utterly destroyed by these and disappear; then the earth will be level and flat, and there will be one way of life and one government among all men, who will be blessed and speak one language.”
What Plutarch Proves
- Full dualistic theology: Ahura Mazda vs. Angra Mainyu
- Light vs. darkness symbolism
- Mithra as mediator
- Final victory of good over evil
- World renovation
- Universal harmony
All documented in the 1st-2nd century CE — from Greek observation, not Zoroastrian propaganda.
DIOGENES LAERTIUS (3rd Century CE)
Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Prologue
“Those who believe that philosophy started among the barbarians explain its origin among each of these people as follows: the Magi descend from Zoroaster.”
“Aristotle in the first book of his work On Philosophy says they are even more ancient than the Egyptians, and that according to them there are two first principles: a good spirit and an evil spirit, the former called Zeus or Oromasdes, the latter Hades or Areimanius.”
“Hermippus in his first book On the Magi says that Zoroaster lived five thousand years before the Trojan War.”
“Xanthus the Lydian says Zoroaster lived six thousand years before Xerxes’ invasion of Greece.”
What Diogenes Proves
- Compilation of Greek knowledge about Zoroastrianism
- Multiple sources dating Zoroaster to extreme antiquity
- Consistent description of dualistic theology
- Greeks considered Magi founders of philosophy
PLINY THE ELDER (23-79 CE)
Natural History, Book 30.1-3
“Without doubt magic arose in Persia with Zoroaster… Eudoxus, who wished magic to be recognized as the most illustrious and useful of philosophical schools, declared that Zoroaster lived six thousand years before the death of Plato. Aristotle held the same view.”
“There was another Zoroaster… Five million verses were composed by Zoroaster.”
What Pliny Proves
- Roman acceptance of Zoroaster’s antiquity
- Attribution of extensive written works
- Recognition of Zoroastrianism’s philosophical status
- Eudoxus (Greek astronomer) and Aristotle both dating Zoroaster to 6,000 years before Plato
STRABO (c. 64 BCE – 24 CE)
Geography, Book 15.3.13-15
“The Persians do not erect statues or altars, but sacrifice on a high place… They also reverence fire and water and earth, and sacrifice only to these… They sacrifice to fire by adding dry wood without the bark and placing fat on the top.”
“The Magi are not a family descended from one ancestor, but a class of men set apart, like the priests of the Egyptians.”
What Strabo Proves
- Detailed knowledge of Zoroastrian ritual
- Fire worship documented
- Understanding of Magi as priestly class
- Consistent with other Greek sources
AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS (c. 330-400 CE)
Roman History, Book 23.6
“The Magi… maintain the eternal fire in the sacred places… They foretell the future… Zoroaster, the famous founder of this wisdom, borrowed much from the mysteries of the Chaldeans.”
What Ammianus Proves
- Late Roman knowledge of Zoroastrianism
- Sacred fire as central practice
- Zoroaster as founder still recognized in 4th century CE
SUMMARY TABLE: What the Greeks Knew
| Source | Date | Key Information |
|---|---|---|
| Herodotus | 5th c. BCE | No idols, fire worship, supreme god, Mitra |
| Xanthus | 5th c. BCE | Zoroaster 6,000 years before Xerxes |
| Plato | 4th c. BCE | Zoroaster son of “Horomazes” (Ahura Mazda) |
| Aristotle | 4th c. BCE | Magi more ancient than Egyptians |
| Theopompus | 4th c. BCE | Dualism, cosmic conflict, final victory, Frashokereti |
| Plutarch | 1st-2nd c. CE | Full dualistic theology, Mithra, world renovation |
| Diogenes | 3rd c. CE | Compilation of earlier sources |
| Pliny | 1st c. CE | Zoroaster’s extreme antiquity |
| Strabo | 1st c. BCE/CE | Fire worship, Magi priesthood |
| Ammianus | 4th c. CE | Sacred fire, Zoroaster as founder |
What This Proves
1. Zoroastrian Doctrines Existed Before Sassanid Texts
Theopompus (4th century BCE) and Plutarch (1st-2nd century CE) describe:
- Dualism (Ahura Mazda vs. Angra Mainyu)
- Cosmic conflict
- Final victory of good
- World renovation (Frashokereti)
This matches the “late” Avestan texts exactly — proving the doctrines existed centuries earlier.
2. Greeks Considered Zoroaster Extremely Ancient
Multiple independent sources (Xanthus, Aristotle, Hermippus, Eudoxus) dated Zoroaster to 5,000-6,000 years before their time.
Even if exaggerated, this proves:
- Zoroaster was not a contemporary of the Exile (600 BCE)
- Greeks believed Persian wisdom was among the most ancient
- The 600 BCE minimalist dating has no ancient support
3. Greek Philosophers Learned from the Magi
Pythagoras, Plato, and others are reported to have studied with or been influenced by the Magi. Greek philosophy has documented Persian roots.
4. These Are Not Zoroastrian Sources
Greek and Roman historians were outsiders. They had no motive to inflate Persian claims. Their testimony is independent verification.
Conclusion
The next time someone says “We can’t know what Zoroastrians believed before the Sassanid period,” point them here.
Greek and Roman historians — writing centuries before the Avesta was compiled — documented:
- Zoroaster’s antiquity
- Dualistic theology
- Fire worship
- Cosmic conflict
- Final victory of good
- World renovation
- Magi as ancient teachers
The ancient world knew what Zoroastrianism taught. They wrote it down. Their testimony survives.
The “late texts” objection collapses against this wall of independent evidence.
The Greeks and Romans were witnesses. Their testimony stands.
Sources (All Primary Citations Above)
- Herodotus. Histories. Multiple translations available
- Plato. Alcibiades I
- Plutarch. Isis and Osiris
- Diogenes Laertius. Lives of Eminent Philosophers
- Pliny the Elder. Natural History
- Strabo. Geography
- Ammianus Marcellinus. Roman History
Secondary Scholarship
- de Jong, Albert. Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature. Brill, 1997
- Kingsley, Peter. “The Greek Origin of the Sixth-Century Dating of Zoroaster.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 1990
- Boyce, Mary. A History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. 2. Brill, 1982
At eFireTemple, we compile what others ignore. The Greeks and Romans testified. We remember.
